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Chinese imperial examinationsor keju lit. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by merit rather than birth started early in Chinese history but using written examinations as a tool of selection started in earnest during the mid- Tang dynasty. The system became dominant during the Song dynasty and lasted until it was abolished in the late Qing dynasty reforms in The exams served to ensure a common knowledge of writing, the classics, and literary style among state officials.
This common culture helped to unify the empire and the ideal of achievement by merit gave legitimacy to imperial rule. The examination system played a significant role in tempering the power of hereditary aristocracy and military authority, and the rise of a gentry class of scholar-bureaucrats.
Starting with the Song dynastythe system was regularized and developed into a roughly three-tiered ladder from local to provincial to court exams. The content was narrowed and fixed on texts of Neo-Confucian orthodoxy by the Ming dynastyduring which the highest degree, the jinshi Chinese : 進士became essential for the highest offices. On the other hand, holders of the basic degree, the shengyuan 生員became vastly oversupplied, civil service essay competition, resulting in holders who could not hope for office.
Wealthy families, especially from the merchant class, could opt into the system by educating their sons or purchasing degrees. In the late 19th century, critics blamed the examination system for stifling Chinese science and technical knowledge. China had about one civil licentiate per people.
As many as two or three million men a year took the exams. The Chinese examination system also civil service essay competition neighboring countries. It existed in Japan though brieflyKoreaRyūkyūas well as Vietnam. The Chinese examination system was introduced to the Western world in the reports of European missionaries and diplomatsand encouraged FranceGermanyand the British East India Company to use a similar method to select prospective employees. Following the initial success in that company, the British government adopted a similar testing system for civil service essay competition civil servants in Modeled after these previous adaptations, the United States established its own testing program for certain government jobs after Tests of skill such as archery contests have existed since the Zhou dynasty or, more mythologically, Yao.
Although some examinations did exist from the Han to the Sui dynasty, they did not offer an official avenue civil service essay competition government appointment, civil service essay competition, the majority of which were filled through recommendations based on qualities such as social status, morals, and ability.
The bureaucratic imperial examinations as a concept has its origins civil service essay competition the year during the short lived Sui dynasty. Its successor, the Tang dynastyimplemented imperial examinations on a relatively small scale until the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Civil service essay competition. The exact nature of Wu's influence on the examination system is still a matter of scholarly debate, civil service essay competition.
During the Song dynasty the emperors expanded both examinations and the government school system, in part to counter the influence of military aristocrats, increasing the number of degree holders to more than four to five times that of the Tang. From the Song dynasty onward, the examinations played the primary role in selecting scholar-officials, civil service essay competition, who formed the literati elite of society. However the examinations co-existed with other forms of recruitment such as direct appointments for the ruling family, nominations, quotas, clerical promotions, sale of official titles, and special procedures for eunuchs, civil service essay competition.
The regular higher level degree examination cycle was decreed in to be three years but this triennial cycle only existed in nominal terms. In practice both before and after this, the examinations were irregularly implemented for significant periods of time: thus, the calculated statistical averages for the number of degrees conferred annually should be understood in this context. The jinshi exams were not a yearly event and should not be considered so; the annual average figures are a necessary artifact of quantitative analysis.
A brief interruption to the examinations occurred at the beginning of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, but was later brought back with regional quotas which favored the Mongols and disadvantaged Southern Chinese. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrow and focused nature of intellectual life and enhanced the autocratic power of the emperor.
The system continued with some modifications until its abolition in during the last years of the Qing dynasty. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. Candidates for offices recommended by the prefect of prefecture were examined by the Ministry of Rites and then presented to the emperor.
Some candidates for clerical positions would be given a test to determine whether they could memorize nine thousand Chinese characters. Recruitment and appointment in the Han dynasty were primarily through recommendations by aristocrats and local officials.
Recommended individuals were also primarily aristocrats. In theory, recommendations were based on a combination of reputation and ability but it is not certain how well this worked in practice. Oral examinations on policy issues were sometimes conducted personally by the emperor himself during Western Han times.
In BC Emperor Wen of Han introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinationshowever these did not heavily emphasize Confucian material. Previously, potential officials never sat for any sort of academic examinations. Emperor Wu of Han 's early reign saw the creation of a series of posts for academicians in BC. While the examinations expanded under the Han, the number of graduates who went on to hold office were few.
The examinations did not offer a formal route to commissioned office and the primary path to office remained through recommendations.
Though connections and recommendations remained more meaningful than the exam, the initiation of the examination system by Emperor Wu was crucial for the Confucian nature of later imperial civil service essay competition. During the Han dynasty, these examinations were primarily used for the purpose of classifying candidates who had been specifically recommended.
Even during the Tang dynasty the quantity of placements into government service through the examination system only averaged about nine persons per year, with the known maximum being less than 25 in any given year. The first standardized method of recruitment in Chinese history was introduced during the Three Kingdoms period in the Kingdom of Wei.
It was called the nine-rank system. In the nine-rank system, each office was given a rank from highest to lowest in descending order from one to nine. Imperial officials were responsible for assessing the quality of the talents recommended by local elites. The criteria for recruitment included qualities such as morals and social status, which in practice meant that influential families monopolized all high ranking posts while men civil service essay competition poorer means filled the lower ranks.
The local zhongzheng lit, civil service essay competition. central and impartial officials assessed the status of households or families in nine categories; only the sons of the fifth categories and above were entitled to offices. The method obviously contradicted the ideal of meritocracy. It was, however, civil service essay competition, convenient in a time of constant wars among the various contending states, all of them relying on an aristocratic political and social structure.
For nearly three hundred years, noble young men were afforded government higher education in the Imperial Academy and carefully prepared for public service, civil service essay competition.
The Jiupin guanren fa was closely related to this kind of educational practice and only began to decline after the second half of the sixth century. The Sui dynasty continued the tradition of recruitment through recommendation but modified it in with the requirement for every prefecture to supply three scholars a year. Inall capital officials of rank five and above were required to make nominations for consideration in several categories.
During the Sui dynasty, examinations for "classicists" mingjing ke and civil service essay competition talents" xiucai ke were introduced. Classicists were tested on the Confucian canon, which was considered an easy task at the civil service essay competition, so those who passed were awarded posts in the lower rungs of officialdom. Cultivated talents were tested on matters of statecraft as well as the Confucian canon.
In ADEmperor Yang of Sui established a new category of examinations for the "presented scholar" jinshike 进士科. These three categories of examination were the origins of the imperial examination system that would last until Consequently, the year is also considered by many to be the real beginning of the imperial examination system. The Sui dynasty was itself short lived however and the system was not developed further until much later. The imperial examinations did not significantly shift civil service essay competition selection in practice during the Sui dynasty.
Schools at the capital still produced students for appointment. Inheritance of official status was also still practiced. Men of the merchant and artisan classes were still barred from officialdom. However the reign of Emperor Wen of Sui did see much greater expansion of government authority over officials.
Under Emperor Wen, all officials down to the district level had to be appointed by the Department of State Affairs in the capital and were subjected to annual merit rating evaluations, civil service essay competition.
Regional Inspectors and District Magistrates had to be transferred every three years and their subordinates every four years. They were not allowed to bring their parents or adult children with them upon reassignment of territorial administration.
The Sui did not establish any hereditary kingdoms or marquisates of the Han sort. To compensate, nobles were given substantial stipends and staff.
Aristocratic officials were ranked based on their pedigree with distinctions such as "high expectations", "pure", and "impure" so that they could be awarded offices appropriately. The Tang dynasty and the Zhou interregnum of Empress Wu Wu Zetian expanded examinations beyond the basic process of qualifying candidates based on questions of policy matters followed by an interview.
Under the Tang, six categories of regular civil-service examinations were organized by the Department of State Affairs and held by the Ministry of Rites : cultivated talents, classicists, presented scholars, legal experts, writing experts, and arithmetic experts.
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang also added categories for Daoism and apprentices. The hardest of these examination categories, the presented scholar jinshi degree, became more prominent over time until it superseded all other examinations.
By the late Tang the jinshi degree became a prerequisite for appointment into higher offices. Appointments by recommendation were also required to take examinations. The examinations were carried out in the first lunar month. After the results were completed, the list of results was submitted to the Grand Chancellorwho had the right to alter the results. Sometimes the list was also submitted to the Secretariat-Chancellery for additional inspection.
The emperor could also announce a repeat of the exam. The list of results was then published in the second lunar month. Classicists were tested by being presented phrases from the classic texts. Then they had to write the whole paragraph to complete the phrase. If the examinee was able to correctly answer five of ten questions, civil service essay competition, they passed. Civil service essay competition was considered such an easy task that a year-old candidate was said to be old for a classicist examinee, but young to be a jinshi.
An oral version of the classicist examination known as moyi also existed but consisted of questions rather than just ten. In contrast, the jinshi examination not only tested the Confucian classics, but also history, proficiency in compiling official documents, inscriptions, discursive treatises, memorials, and poems and rhapsodies. Because the number of jinshi graduates were so low they acquired great social standing in society.
The judicial, arithmetic, and clerical examinations were also held but these graduates only qualified for their specific agencies. Candidates who passed the exam were not automatically granted office. They still had to pass a quality evaluation by the Ministry of Rites, after which they were allowed to wear official robes.
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